China: Qing Dynasty Porcelain and Global Exchange Pre-Visit

Emperors, Arts, and Trade

Around the end of the 16th century, a Jurchin leader named Nurhaci (1559–1626) brought together various nomadic groups who became known as the Manchus.  His forces quickly conquered the area of present-day Manchuria, and his heirs set their sights on China. In 1636 the Manchus chose the new name of Qing, meaning “pure,” to emphasize their intention to purify China by seizing power from the Ming dynasty. By 1683, Qing forces had conquered the remainder of China and established a dynasty that endured until 1911.

The Qing rulers adopted many aspects of the traditional Confucian-based Chinese bureaucracy, including the imperial examination system, but they were also careful to make various adjustments to ensure their ultimate control of the administration. Qing officials made Neo-Confucian philosophy, which emphasized obedience of subject to ruler, the official state doctrine.

Between 1661 and 1795, the Qing Empire was ruled by only three emperors, Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. This long period of stability and prosperity resulted in a golden age for China. The borders of the empire were gradually expanded to include large areas of Central Asia and Tibet, which kept the dynasty safe from nomadic invasions. These emperors also supported Chinese arts and culture. Emperors and court officials alike became patrons of painters, calligraphers, poets, and artisans.

By the end of the Qianlong emperor’s reign in 1799, troubles began to darken the Qing golden age. The unparalleled increase in population began to strain the limits of Chinese food production. This shortage was coupled with inflation and financial instability. To make matters worse, the Qing policy of isolation from the Western world was sorely challenged. Beginning in the mid-18th century, Western trade was only allowed in Guangzhou (Canton) and had to be arranged through state-licensed merchants organized into a guild known as the Cohong (hong means “business”). The British sought to change the Cohong system because they wanted to market the products of their newly industrialized economy.

Economic and Cultural Exchange

By the beginning of the 17th century, Portuguese and Dutch traders were bringing chests full of tea into European ports. The first tea cargo to reach England came by way of Dutch ships in 1645. By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began importing Chinese tea to England. At first, it was mainly enjoyed by aristocrats. Catherine of Braganza, the Portuguese queen consort of King Charles II, introduced tea to her court after their marriage in 1662. The novel beverage soon spread to every level of society, becoming a popular choice in the new tea houses, which catered to the middle classes. Between 1720 and 1834, annual British imports of Chinese tea rose from 14,000 to 400,000 tons. Tea alone made up more than a third of the goods that Britain imported from China.

As a cargo, tea was accompanied by a product that was both a related commodity and a useful aid in shipping. The porcelain produced in China was shipped to Europe with the tea, providing additional ballast to stabilize the ships.  Placed at the bottom of ship holds, it also acted as a protective layer underneath the tea, shielding it from damp and odor.

Mass-produced in Qing dynasty factories like those at Jingdezhen, Chinese porcelain was in demand in Europe and the object of much fascination.  Indeed, in many European homes, porcelains were displayed in cabinets or on chests and mantels–often in groups or in pairs. A garniture of five pieces, such as this group at right, is perhaps inspired by the “five offerings” displayed on altars in Chinese temples.

Porcelain objects, made by Qing artisans for Europeans, can be regarded as points of economic exchange between East and West.  As we shall see during your visit to the VMFA, they may also be understood as points of cultural exchange.  Techniques for making and decorating porcelain were shared as a result of the porcelain trade, and images on many examples evidence the growing understanding of each culture by the other.  We can therefore consider these objects as material culture, the study of which can help us expand our understanding of the past.

Porcelain: a strong, vitreous (glass-like) type of ceramic that is made from kaolin (a fine white clay rich in aluminum silicate). It is shaped and fired at 1250° – 1400°.  It is hard, brittle, white, and translucent when held up to the light.

Glaze: the glassy surface layer of a ceramic item.  Porcelain objects do not need a glaze to make them impermeable, but glazes add luster and shine to the surface.

Flux: an ingredient used to promote fusion by lowing the melting point of a substance.

Enamel colors: Pigments mixed with a glass flux, painted over a pre-fired glaze, and then fired again at lower temperatures.  The pigments are derived from metallic oxides such as cobalt blue, iron red, or copper green.

Famille Rose: A European name meaning “the pink family” given to Chinese porcelain wares whose decoration is dominated by a rose-pink color.  This enamel color was achieved by adding lead-based white pigment to colloidal gold. The Chinese term for this type of porcelain was pronounced yangcai (foreign colors).

Biscuit: Ceramic ware after its first firing without glaze.