01: Introduction

Image: Nuinobedō tōsei gusoku armor and military equipment, Late Momoyama period, c. 1600 (chest armor, helmet bowl, shoulder guards); remounted mid-Edo period, mid-18th century, iron, lacquer, gold, bronze, silver, leather, wood, horsehair, hemp, brocade, steel. © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas. Photo: Brad Flowers

Welcome to VMFA and the exhibition Samurai Armor from the Collection of Ann and Gabriel Barbier-Mueller. This exhibition is dedicated to Japanese armor and showcases more than 140 works from one of the world’s largest and most significant private collections of samurai armor.

The samurai, whose name means “those who serve”, rose to preeminence as masterful swordsmen, archers, and equestrians beginning in the 12th century and dominated political, social, and cultural aspects of Japan until their fall in the late 19th century.

The incredible objects in this exhibition not only speak to the importance of samurai culture in Japan, but they also provide insights into the individuals who owned, made, and wore samurai armor. Throughout this exhibition, we’ll discover how these objects reveal important aspects of samurai culture, including the familial structures that bound wearers, makers, and owners to the samurai way of life for over 700 years.

This audio guide consists of 11 stops and each stop is indicated by an audio symbol next to a work of art. If you are using an audio wand, input the stop number located on the label next to the audio symbol. If you are using your mobile device, select the audio file associated with the stops for each room.

In addition to the information contained within this guide, be sure to pay attention to the large wall text panels that introduce each gallery and the labels that accompany most objects – these will provide additional context for the people and stories we will explore.

Our first official stop is a rare, fully intact set of armor. There is a lot to see here, so allow yourself a moment to take it all in. As you are looking, you may notice that there are many parts and pieces that make up a full set of samurai armor – not to mention the amount of artistic skill and craftsmanship it would take to create one. You may also have noticed that along with a full suit of armor, this display also contains additional weaponry, armor, and garments.

Now that you have spent some time looking, perhaps you are wondering how someone might fight in something this intricate and complex. This particular set was made around the year 1600 and could very well have been used on the battlefield but many suits included in this exhibition would have been worn during ceremonies. We will explore the concepts of ceremony and battle further in upcoming stops.

You may also be wondering who this armor belonged to. It is believed to have been owned by a branch of the Mōri clan, one of the most important daimyo families in Japanese history. Daimyo were powerful feudal lords who had great control over vast territories. They were loyal to the shogun, or military dictator, who granted lands to daimyo in return for their military support. Daimyo provided this military support through the service of their own samurai warriors. You will hear more about daimyo throughout this guide.

Let’s focus on a couple of components of this set to better understand the connection this armor has to the Mōri clan. We will start with the helmet, as they were considered the most important part of a set of armor. The design of a samurai helmet went beyond mere protection of the head. For example, the decorative elements on this helmet were not only included for aesthetic reasons – they also linked the wearer to a particular clan. With armor that was worn in combat, these features also had the practical purpose of standing out on the battlefield.

The frontal ornament on the helmet represents two paulownia leaves with a 16-leaf imperial chrysanthemum at the center. The paulownia is a hardwood tree native to East Asia, and the chrysanthemum flower, while not originally native to Japan, became an important symbol for the imperial family. The side ornaments on this helmet bear the paulownia crest, or kiri mon, associated, in this case, with the Mōri family. The kiri mon is encircled with three leaves of the paulownia topped by three budding stems. As you look around this display, you may notice that the helmet is not the only object to hold the kiri mon. You will see that this case also contains two surcoats to the left and the right. Both bear the family crests on the back, although only the yellow surcoat’s crest is visible here.

Now draw your attention to the fan in the center of the armor. Perhaps the design of a red circle on a light background looks familiar to you. It represents the sun and is the same symbol we see today on the Japanese flag. It has been used as a symbol in Japan for over a thousand years.

But why might a samurai hold a fan? On the battlefield, commanders of samurai used something called a gunsen, or war fan.  The gunsen was a symbol of the supreme commander of the army and they would use it to signal samurai movement on the battlefield. These war fans could also be used as shields, even offering some protection from arrows, wind, or rocks. Fans were also thought to offer some spiritual protection as the act of fanning was thought to pacify evil spirits.

In the late 16th century, this set of armor belonged to daimyo Kobayakawa Takakage who was originally a member of the Mōri Motonari family. It is believed that the suit was a gift from daimyo and powerful warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi for his efforts in the ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Korea. This gift points to the important status armor held as a symbol of strength and authority, often given in exchange for military service.

Warfare was common throughout Japan for hundreds of years. Our next object shows a scene from a well-known literary tale of an epic battle between clans.

02: The Competition to Be First at Uji River

Image: The Competition to Be First at Uji River, Japan, early 18th century, Six-panel folding screen, ink, color, and gold on paper. © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas. Photo: Brad Flowers.

Warfare was a way of life in Japan for thousands of years. Wars were generally fought to expand territory and claim the power that came along with it. Take a moment to consider the images and action shown on this folding screen. You will probably notice several samurai decked out in full suits of armor and mounted on horses. This image represents a specific scene from the warrior tale The Heike Monogatari or The Tale of the Heike. It is a story that details events of the historical Genpei War that took place from 1180 to 1185. The war was fought between two of the most famous samurai clans – the Taira clan, also known as the Heike, and the Minamoto, also known as the Genji. These clans were fighting for control over the imperial court.

Japanese writing and art are meant to be read from right to left, so let’s begin by taking a close look at the right side of this screen. Draw your attention to the topmost figure in red armor. This is the great samurai Minamoto no Yoshitsune who was the leader and commander of the Minamoto clan. You see him here with four other samurai as they all watch the action ahead of them.

If you look to the left side of the screen, you will see what remains of a destroyed bridge, that leaves no easy way for the warriors to cross the water. In the middle of the screen are two Minamoto samurai, Takatsuna and Kagesue, who have made a friendly bet with each other to see who can cross the rushing Uji River first. Kagesue is just approaching the water’s edge riding on his black horse, while Takatsuna, the leftmost figure, charges forward on his chestnut horse and has made it far ahead of Kagesue. Reaching the other side first was about more than just winning. It was about honor – honor to be the first to attack the opposing side.

During the Genpei War, there was also a significant amount of in-clan fighting within the Minamoto family. The rebelling warriors damaged the bridge to keep the other members of the family at bay, forcing them to cross the rushing water to reach the other side. The Genpei War resulted in the defeat of the Taira clan in 1185, and seven years later, Minamoto no Yoritomo established himself as Japan’s first shogun, or military dictator. This began the Kamakura Shogunate that dominated Japan for well over a century.

Folding screens were used as room dividers or as backdrops during special occasions and the gold background would have helped to illuminate the dark interiors of Japanese castles and homes. Stories like The Tales of the Heike glorified and romanticized the heroic deeds of samurai. Their representations on decorative but functional works of art would remind viewers of these deeds. The scene would also evoke memories of the honor, courage, and loyalty that were essential to the samurai way of life, not to mention demonstrating that the owner was wealthy and sophisticated for owning such an object. While screens like this were commercially available, it was most likely owned by a samurai.

As we move from this decorative object that reveled in the adventures and deeds of samurai, let’s learn a bit more about what it meant to grow up in this culture.

03: Armor of Warabe Type for a Child

Images (left to right): Armor of Warabe Type for a Child, 19th century, Iron, lacquer, gold, wood, lacing, wood, and fabric, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas. Photo: Brad Flowers; Yokohagidō tōsei gusoku armor, Nanbokuchō period, 1336-1392 (helmet); mid-Edo period, 18th century (suit) Iron, shakudō, gold and silver lacquer, lacing, leather, bronze, wood, silk, brocade, bear fur, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

Take a moment to look at this set of armor and pay close attention to the armor’s size. Take a glance at the set displayed to the left for comparison. We will look at both, but we will begin with the smaller set. As you may have already guessed, it was made for a child and therefore was not meant to be used in battle. Before we dive into some of the details of the set, let’s take some time to learn a little bit more about the typical life of a male child born into a samurai family. A samurai boy’s life was highly regulated and consisted of years of rigorous physical and intellectual training that began at about the age of three. It was a father or male relative’s role to pass down their knowledge as samurai to the new generation of warriors, assuring their lineage would triumph in future battles. Before the 17th century, only those from royal or samurai families could afford to educate their children, and even then, only boys were allowed access to formal schooling. Wealthier families could afford to send their boys to specialized academies, and upper-class children had access to horseback riding and archery lessons. It was essential for young warriors to not only know combat skills but also to study calligraphy, literature, Chinese, and spiritual discipline.

You might be asking why a child would have a set of armor if it wasn’t meant to be used? A suit of armor like this marked a major transition. Around the age of twelve, a samurai boy would have a coming-of-age ceremony, known as genpuku, which marked his transition from boyhood to manhood. During this ceremony, along with a suit of armor, he would also be given an adult name and hairstyle and would adopt the clothing of an adult. At around age fifteen, he would be expected to fight in battle if called upon.

Let’s take a closer look at a couple of elements on the child’s armor. Draw your attention to the breast-plate where you will find a gilded-bronze lion in the center. Lions were viewed as protectors and symbols of strength, both of which were important qualities for samurai.

Now let your eyes focus on the shoulder guards. Notice a familiar creature? Crab motifs were frequently incorporated into samurai armor as symbols of protection. Crabs are considered sturdy and resilient, both qualities samurai warriors needed in battle. So, the inclusion of crab imagery on their armor was not just a stylistic decision but also a representation of samurai core values.

Because samurai greatly valued family, and armor was so important and expensive, sets were handed down from father to son for generations, and older components were often incorporated into newer armor over the centuries. The adult armor next to the child’s is an example of this. In this set, the chest armor was created during the 18th century while the helmet bowl, was made during the 14th century and likely passed down from father to son throughout multiple generations. If you look closely at the helmet, you will notice a circle with a butterfly at its center. This is the mon, or family crest, and it tells us that this helmet was probably passed down through the Ikeda clan, a prominent samurai family.

It is possible this helmet was once used in combat, since the helmet bowl is made from iron and dates back to the 14th century, before the peaceful Edo period, centuries later.

Despite the fact that the child’s helmet was not meant to be used in battle, while the adult helmet most likely was, they both contain visual elements that indicate how armor was being adapted for changing battlefield conditions. Notice that atop both helmets there is a metal u-shaped piece that sticks upward like horns. These are called kuwagata, which can be translated as “stag beetle,” because the metal plate resembles the mandibles of a stag beetle. To the Japanese, stag beetles often symbolize luck and prosperity, which, as you can imagine, would have been important to a samurai on the battlefield. Kuwagata, and other elements like these, also had the practical purpose of standing out on the battlefield. With the introduction of guns in the first half of the 16th century, battles became even more chaotic, often filled with smoke from gunfire. Elaborate decorative elements helped identify samurai as they fought. These functional elements continued to be included in ceremonial armor not meant for battle after the 17th century.

Not all soldiers were allowed to wear full body armor, so wearing such an elaborate ensemble would have demonstrated the high-ranking status and wealth of its wearer. The quality of the armor also reflected the wearer’s ability to commission the top craftsmen in Japan. We will learn about one of the most important families of skilled artisans in the next stop.

04: Multi‑Plate Ridged Helmet (sujibachi kabuto)

Image: Multi‑Plate Ridged Helmet (sujibachi kabuto), Myōchin Nobuie 明珍信家, Japan, 1496–1564, 1539, Iron, silver, copper, leather, and lacing, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

In medieval Japan, as in many cultures, job specialties were often passed down within families from generation to generation. In families specializing in fine arts and craftsmanship, skills were taught to the next generation starting at a young age so children could learn family techniques and improve their craft as they aged. This generational skill-sharing allowed families the opportunity to distinguish themselves and develop their own “schools” or institutions of armor styles. Each of the schools and makers would develop trade secrets and signature styles that allowed them to stand out from other artisans.

The Myōchin were the most active family of samurai armor makers since the 12th century when they were honored with prestigious clientele including the Emperor Konoe. It is said that the Emperor was so pleased with his new armor that he bestowed the name Myōchin onto the family, Myō meaning “brilliant,” and Chin meaning “rare.” This name emphasized the rare and brilliant craftsmanship of the Myōchin School, ensuring their place as one of the top families within the nine major armorer schools in Japan at that time.

Myōchin Nobuie was the creator of this early ridged helmet. We know this because he signed the inside of the helmet bowl with his kao, or stylized signature. During the early 16th century, Nobuie was classed as one of the three Myōchin masters, and the fine line engraving and low-relief chiseling details that he created on iron masks and helmets distinguished him from others in this family of artisans.

Take a moment to appreciate Nobuie’s skill and craftsmanship. Look closely at the fine lines of spiraling patterns in silver inlay as well as dragons on the helmet’s visor. Now take a closer look at the front of the helmet where there are two pieces of curved material on either side of the temples. These are called fukiegashi, and these turned-back deflectors would have protected the face from flying arrows. If you continue looking, you may also notice a piece of metal with holes at the center of the visor. This is where a crest, now missing, would have been adhered.

The next few objects on our tour were also produced by members of the Myōchin school. As you look at these upcoming objects, take in the fine craftsmanship that was characteristic of the Myōchin artisans.

05: Armor of the Mogamidō Type

Images (left to right): Armor of the Mogamidō Type, Myōchin Muneharu (helmet), Japan, active mid-19th century, Myōchin Muneyoshi (chest armor), Japan, active mid-19th century, helmet: mid-19th century; armor: 1849, Iron, gold, bronze, silk, leather, and lacquer; Ōboshi sujibachi kabuto (ridged helmet with large rivets), Signed: Masuda Myōchin Ōsumi no kami Ki no Munemasa (active 1688–1749), Mid Edo period, ca. 1730 Iron, gold, silver, bronze, shakudō, leather © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

It was not uncommon for several artisans to work on the design and creation of a single suit of armor, each being responsible for a different material. Often, these artisans were so proud of the finished piece, that they each signed it to claim the work as their own. This suit of armor bears the signatures of two Myōchin School members: Muneharu who created the helmet, and Muneyashi who formed the iron chest plate. The artist who created the helmet, Myōchin Muneharu, was later commissioned by shogun Tokugawa Iemochi to create a suit of armor as a diplomatic gift for Queen Victoria of England in 1859. This commission demonstrates just how significant his artistry was considered.

Look closely at the helmet’s design elements. Do you recognize the metal u-shape of the kuwagata, or “stag beetle” that we saw a couple stops ago? The kuwagata displayed the samurai’s elite ranking and made them easily identifiable on the battlefield.

If you move on to the next case behind this set of armor, you will notice another helmet with kuwagata. This helmet was created by Myōchin Munemasa, a master of the Myōchin School. As you can see, this helmet has a more ornamental appearance and is covered in fine metal details of dragonflies and golden grasses. You can find two mon, or family crests, of encircled mallow leaves on either side of the helmet. This crest belonged to the Matsudaira family; a noble clan related to the ruling Tokugawa shogunate. By commissioning the Myōchin school – some of the best artisans in the country – to create this ornate helmet, the Matsudaira were displaying their power, wealth, and status.

In 1868, the Meiji Restoration mandated the dissolution of the samurai, and with this mandate, there was no longer a demand for the creation of arms and armor. The Myōchin school, however, adapted to this change and the rapid modernization around them by using their skills as armorers to become blacksmiths. To this day, the Myōchin family continues their legacy through their metalsmithing business, which is still located in the city of Himeji, west of Osaka.

Now let’s take a look at more examples of elaborate helmets and examine the meaning they held to the samurai who wore them.

06: Ridged Helmet with Rivets (hoshi sujibachi kabuto)

Images (left to right): Ridged Helmet with Rivets (hoshi sujibachi kabuto), Myōchin Yoshiiye (helmet bowl), Japan, active 16th century, helmet bowl: 16th century; ornamentation: 18th century, Iron, brocade, leather, lacing, and wood, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers; Helmet (kabuto) with Crest Representing Fudō Myōō and Half Mask (menpō), Japan, early 17th century, Iron, copper, gold, wood, leather, lacquer, and lacing, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

As we have seen in several pieces in this guide and throughout the exhibition, the decorative motifs that embellish samurai armor can be symbols of power, strength, protection, and wealth. Another important component of the decoration of armor was the carefully crafted depictions of mythical figures and religious symbolism, especially Buddhist elements.

Upon his return from China in 1191, a monk named Myōan Eisai introduced Zen Buddhism to Japan, and the religion is still widely practiced today. During the 13th century, Buddhism spread rapidly throughout Japan and became the favored belief system of the samurai, teaching warriors not to fear change, or death, and allowing war-hardened samurai to calm their minds through meditation.

Give yourself a moment to look at the two helmets in this case. Each one displays a decorative element relating to Zen Buddhism. Turn your attention to the helmet with the standing figure surrounded by red flames. This was made by the Myōchin school master, Myōchin Yoshiiye. The standing figure is a representation of the Buddhist deity of wisdom, Fudō Myōō, “the Immovable One,” who also served as a divine protector and patron of swordsmen. The figure would have originally held his signature attributes – a sword, now lost, in his right hand along with a coiled rope in his left. These symbols serve as metaphorical tools to keep worshippers in a state of calm. His Sword of Wisdom cuts through thoughts of anger, confusion, and greed, while the rope binds those who are controlled by overwhelming and irrational emotions, pulling them back into a meditative mindset.

Now direct your eyes to the second helmet, which also relates to Fudō Myōō. If you look closely at the helmet’s fiery frontal crest, you will see the deity’s original Sanskrit name, Acala, written in the center of the flames. Sanskrit, the original language of Buddhism, traveled from India to Japan with the dissemination of the religion. The deity Fudō Myōō served as a moral compass and became a symbol of strength for the samurai. The flames on the crest are the Flames of Pristine Awareness, which represent the god and symbolize fortitude and the burning away of evil. This fiery Buddhist crest is combined with the ornament on the back of the helmet, representing a moon. The rabbit ears symbolize courage and longevity. All of these elements together were meant to bring the helmet’s wearer good luck and protection in battle.

So far, we have only seen objects and armor worn by men. Next, we will explore an object that speaks to the role of women in samurai culture.

07: Fire Cape (kaji shōzoku)

Image: Fire Cape (kaji shōzoku), Japan, late 18th century, Cotton, silk, and Japanese paper (washi), © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

Women played an essential role in samurai families. Along with the important role of producing and raising heirs, women were fully responsible for running the household and managing finances while their husbands were away at war. This also included protecting their homes and families in the event of an enemy attack. They were even expected to fight to the death to preserve their family’s honor if needed.

Fires, whether accidental or from enemy attacks, posed a real risk to all residents and their homes as the majority of traditional Japanese buildings at this time were made of wood, making them highly flammable. This brings us to the special cape you see before you. It is known as a kaji shōzuko, and they were made specifically for women and these perilous occasions.

The hood on this fire cape lets us know it was made for a woman. Male firefighters wore helmets, leather or thick cotton jackets, and pants that would have been drenched in water. But silk capes, like this one, were used to protect the wearers from smoke inhalation as they helped their family flee the home. High-ranking samurai women were trained to evacuate household members during fires, and along with one of these specialized capes, they would wear matching pants and chest plates. These capes were quite expensive, so only wealthy families were able to afford them.

You may have noticed the appliqued design on the cape. The white, comma-shaped symbols inside the circle are known as Mitsudomoe or tomoe. These symbols come from Shintoism, which is the native religion of Japan, and they were used as protective charms and also served as the crest for the Shinto god of war, Hachiman. Though tomoe were often utilized as family crests, they could also be used as symbols of water. These symbols decorated homes, temples, firefighter’s clothing, and protective fire capes like this one to ward off fire and offer spiritual protection.

Samurai women would have also used weapons to protect themselves and their families. Let’s explore one of these weapons called a naginata.

08: Naginata (pole weapon)

Images (top to bottom): Naginata (pole weapon), Mid Edo period, 18th century, Iron, lacquer, wood, gold, silver, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Studio Ferrazzini Bouchet Photography, Geneva; Efu no tachi sword, Signed: Bishū Osafune jū Yokoyama Kōzuke Daijō Fujiwara Sukesada (Yokoyama Kōzuke Daijō Fujiwara Sukesada residing in Osafune in Bizen province), Early Edo period, 1660–1670, Bronze, stingray skin, wood, lacquer, nashiji, gold, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

As you spend time looking at this naginata, you’ll notice that it looks like a pole with a curved blade at the end. Naginata along with a small dagger known as a kaiken, were one of the only weapons deemed appropriate for women, and, as such, they were often included in women’s dowries. Though women did not actually participate in military combat, between the 12th and 19th centuries, samurai women received training in martial arts with naginata so they were prepared to protect their homes in the event of an enemy attack. Even during peacetime, women of samurai families continued martial arts training with naginata to toughen their spirits and minds, which was thought to make them better wives and mothers. Naginata were also an essential weapon for samurai men and were often used in battle. This example here bears the crest of the aristocratic Koga family, a branch of the illustrious Minamoto clan.

The favored weapon of the samurai, however, was the sword, like the one that can be seen in the case to the right of the naginata. There were numerous types of blades that made up a samurai’s ensemble. The typical pairing would be a short sword known as a wakizashi along with a long sword known as a katana. This particular sword is a special example, known as a tachi. It would have been worn in court for ceremonial occasions and was only owned by the highest-ranking military members. If you were to count the number of family crests that cover the expanse of the weapon, you would find 135, and they all belong to the Abe clan, one of the oldest and most influential of the daimyo families. The exquisite craftsmanship and use of expensive materials for this sword emphasize the wealth and status of its owner. The blade’s sheath is covered with a scabbard lacquered with gold particles and gilt bronze embellishments while the hilt is wrapped in stingray skin. These expensive and delicate materials required the hand of multiple highly skilled craftsmen, and it would have taken countless hours of manual labor to produce this stunning result. A video that demonstrates the sword-making technique is featured at the end of the exhibition.

As the centuries progressed, the craftsmen who were traditionally trained as swordsmiths and iron forgers had to learn to adapt to changing technology. When Portuguese ships arrived in Japan in 1543, these foreigners brought with them matchlock guns. Japanese swordsmiths acquired and studied examples to create their own firearms and were able to produce and incorporate them into battle just six years later. If you look to your right, you will see an example of one such gun next to a suit of armor. The metalsmiths who manufactured these guns modified the weapons to fit the samurai’s needs. The matchlock gun revolutionized samurai warfare, allowing infantrymen to fire off four shots a minute in long-distance battles, reducing the need for close combat. Though firearms proved to be powerful weapons and were used up through the nineteenth century, their use declined significantly during the peaceful Edo period.

Now that we’ve seen some examples of samurai weapons, let’s take a look at a scene that shows the conclusion of a battle.

09: The Surrender of Abe no Muneto and His Retainers, from The Earlier Taiheiki

Image: The Surrender of Abe no Muneto and His Retainers, from The Earlier Taiheiki, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Japanese, 1839-1892, 1864, Triptych of woodblock prints; Ink, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas, Photo: Brad Flowers

This triptych, or three-paneled artwork, depicts a scene from the Taiheiki, or the Chronicle of Great Peace. The Taiheiki is a 14th century military epic detailing the lives and battles of great samurai from the Heian period which lasted from 794 to 1185. During the twelfth century, descendants of the imperial family became daimyo, or wealthy feudal lords of large territories, and with this distinction came constant battles for supremacy. The three panels before you show an example of two warring samurai families. These opposing families, both shown fully clad in armor, are the Abe family and the Minamoto family. This work depicts the moment of ceasefire that came after nearly a decade of conflict.

Since Japanese writing and art is intended to be read from right to left, let’s start with the panel on the right. Notice the man sitting in a folding chair wearing an elaborate suit of armor. This is Minamoto no Yoshiie, the daimyo and military General Commander of the Minamoto clan, in his moment of triumph over the surrendering Abe clan. Take a moment to look at his grand helmet, which is topped with a golden dragon surrounded by flames. This helmet displays his power and status.

Turn your attention to the center panel. Three Minamoto samurai are kneeling in front of a giant war drum with battle flags and standards decorating the background. War drums, or taiko, were used to communicate military orders and summon warriors to battle. The Minamoto troops are shown here as a fearsome, united presence. They hold their spears proudly to emphasize their immense support for the daimyo and military General Commander of the Minamoto clan, Minamoto no Yoshiie.

Now take a look at the panel on the left. Give yourself a moment to look closely. Do you see the white flag of surrender? Underneath the flag, multiple grimacing men are on their knees, bowing in acknowledgement of the loss. The front figure on his knees is the Abe clan daimyo, Abe no Munetō, who surrendered after his brother Sadato was killed in battle. Munetō and his men have removed their helmets as a sign of submission and respect to the triumphant Minamoto. In surrendering to the Minamoto, the soldiers and Munetō were spared from death. They were, instead, taken hostage as prisoners of war and later banished from the province.

As we have heard about in previous stops, many decorations used on suits of armor were symbolic and used in ceremonies. Our next stop explores this concept in more depth.

10: Yokohagidō tōsei gusoku armor

Image: Yokohagidō tōsei gusoku armor, Signed: Jōshū no jū Saotome Ienari (Saotome Ienari living in Hitachi province) (helmet); Ichiguchi Yoshikata (mask), Early to mid-Edo period: 17th century (helmet bowl); 18th century (mask and armor), iron, leather, gold, wood, lacing, fur, hemp. © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas. Photo: Brad Flowers

This brilliant red suit of armor, known as tōsei gusoku armor, was made in the 18th century during the relatively peaceful Edo Period. Tōsei gusoku armor, translated as “present-day equipment,” refers to a style of armor that emerged during the 16th century consisting of flat, wide chest plates. Since the samurai were not engaged in warfare during the Edo period, armor created during this timeframe was only used ceremonially and as a way to show off a daimyo’s wealth.

Combining heirloom elements of old armor with newer suits was done throughout samurai history for several reasons. It signaled one’s heritage and replaced missing or worn elements. The helmet bowl seen in this set was constructed during the 17th century, while the rest of the armor and the mask were made later during the 18th century. The helmet was likely handed down from father to son for generations until it was “upcycled” into this newer set of armor, to reflect its current wearer’s taste.

Along with adding heirloom elements, the Edo period also saw the trend of reviving older styles of armor. The helmet of this armor recalls the ridged bowl style popularized during the 14th century in the Nanbokuchō period. The elaborate frontal crest of the helmet shows blazing flames surrounding a fearsome dragon. Look at the armored sleeves and you’ll see lacquered Sanskrit characters referencing Buddhist ideals. These details and the vibrancy of the armor would have made an impressive sight.

Though fighting was rare during the Edo period samurai had ample opportunity to show off their armor and, subsequently, their wealth and status. The Edo period’s ruling Tokugawa shogunate enforced strict rules upon the daimyo in order to keep them submissive. One mandate, known as the sankin-kōtai, required daimyo to live alternatively between the city of Edo, now Tokyo, and their home provinces every other year. Meanwhile, their wives and children remained in Edo permanently as collateral to maintain loyalty to the shogunate. Each time the daimyo left Edo or returned to Edo, there was an elaborate parade. And this was the time for them to show off their intricate suits of armor. The cost of maintaining homes in two places, financing their families, and paying for these extravagant parades ensured that the daimyo remained financially drained. This way, they could not afford to pay for wars in rebellion against the Tokugawa shogunate.

As we’ll see on the final stop of our tour, another important aspect of the sankin-kōtai parade would have been the samurai’s horse and the armor it wore.

11: Armor of the Tachidō Type

Image: Armor of the Tachidō Type, 19th century, Iron, lacquer, gold, and lacing, Attributed to Myōchin Nobuie 明珍信家 (helmet), Japan, active 19th century, © The Ann & Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, Dallas. Photo: Brad Flowers

Give yourself a moment to take in this samurai warrior atop his armor-clad horse. It is an impressive and dramatic sight, but the ensemble he wears would not have graced the battlefield. Instead, it would only have made appearances in the ceremonial parades discussed at our last stop.

Horses were brought from mainland Asia to Japan during the Kofun period between the years 250 and 538. However, they were not introduced into battle until the late Heian period, between 794 and 1185, when combat was mostly mounted archery. Despite horses being used on the battlefield as early as 794, bagai, or horse armor, wasn’t developed until the 16th century, and, interestingly enough, it didn’t reach its height of popularity until the 17th and 18th centuries during the peaceful Edo period when horses had no need to wear protective garments.

Focus your attention on the leather bamen, or horse mask, that covers the horse’s face. Take in its elaborate features. Resembling a mythical animal, part horse and part fearsome dragon with horns and fangs, this mask would have made quite an impression during a parade.

Now, let’s take a look at the horse’s body armor, which is made up of two sections – one that covers the neck and one that covers the rear. Each section is comprised of small leather squares sewn onto hemp. The solid iron stirrups were made so samurai could safely stand when riding to shoot their bow and arrow. Look carefully at the saddle pads. Do you see the gold lacquered waves and flying birds? This striking suit would have made a grand show of a samurai’s wealth and status.

Look closely at the front of the helmet worn by the rider, and you will see the maedate, or frontal crest, of a golden dragon. In Japanese folklore, dragons represent power, courage, wisdom, and luck, which are all essential qualities in a leader and samurai.

This suit of armor was made by the famed Myōchin master, Myōchin Nobuie, who was known for his highly stylized masks. To wear armor of such high quality made by one of the best armory schools in the country further emphasized the samurai’s wealth and rank and to wear the armor while riding a horse was an even greater indication of prestige.

Thank you for joining us today at VMFA for Samurai Armor from the Collection of Ann and Gabriel Barbier-Mueller. We hope you have enjoyed learning more about samurai armor and culture. As you exit, don’t miss the videos on the art of Japanese archery and sword making to your right. We also encourage you to visit our permanent collection of Japanese art on the second floor. We hope to see you at the museum again soon!